Rapid growth in the world’s population and the unsustainable use of modern technologies has resulted in an array of environmental issues collectively referred to as the ‘ecological crisis’ (Tucker, 2008). These issues include severe weather patterns, endangerment and extinction of species, unsustainable consumption of non-renewable resources and the depletion of forests and fisheries. In 1967, Lynn White infamously claimed that the cause of the ecological crisis was Christianity’s attitude of dominion and subjugation towards nature. In response, Christianity sought an ‘ecological reformation’ and re-examined scriptures to seek an alternative ecofriendly approach to nature (Branton, 2006:214). The purpose of this essay is to provide a broad overview of how Christianity has interacted with the ecological crisis. This will be achieved by describing and providing examples of the stewardship model and the ecojustice strategy, and by reflecting on the value that Christianity and religions in general contribute to solving ecological issues.
The stewardship model and the ecojustice strategy
To better understand the stewardship model and the ecojustice strategy, White’s (1967) thesis will be discussed briefly. White (1967) essentially suggested that the Christian interpretation of God’s command to “master” and “subdue” the earth in Genesis 1:28 enabled humans to unconscionably exploit the earth’s resources. This view was later referred to as the dominion theory which placed God at the top of the hierarchy, humans at second and nature at the bottom (Branton, 2006). “Heaven bound” humans were less concerned about preserving this world and more concerned with the upcoming afterlife (Mueller, 2008: 1043). Christianity responded with vigour to this accusation with a diverse range of approaches including ecofeminism, creation spirituality, reconstructionist, apologist and revisionist perspectives (Coughlin, 1994; Santmire, 2000). This essay focuses only on stewardship and ecojustice as they are considered mainline Christian responses to the ecological crisis.
The stewardship model directly responds to White’s (1967) critique by suggesting that God’s command to “tend” and care for creation in Genesis 2:15 (“The Lord God placed the man in the Garden of Eden to tend and watch over it”) was intended to regulate the “dominion” implied in Genesis 1:28. Stewardship emerged as a ‘discrete theological discourse’ in the 1980s and was particularly associated with evangelical Protestantism (Jenkins, 2008a: 78). This model emphasises that humans were given the earth’s resources to use but humans have a moral and spiritual obligation to God to care for those resources and to use them sustainably. Stewardship acknowledges that the use of resources in a reckless and negligent manner has resulted in the ecological crisis (Kearns, 1996).
An example of a Christian movement which has responded to ecological issues through the stewardship model is Creation Care. Creation Care was founded by the Evangelical Environmental Network (EEN) in 1993 and is directly based on the Genesis 2:15 call to humanity to “tend” to God’s creation (Creation Care, 2011). Their goals include educating and mobilising Christians to care for creation, advocating policies that are ecofriendly and being “faithful stewards of God’s provision” (Creation Care, 2011). How does this translate into actual activities? Creation Care has resources for educating Christians and churches (such as the publication of their own magazine and podcasts) as well as specific campaigns that address ecological issues. One campaign for example is targeted at reducing mercury poisoning and pollution which can affect unborn children.
A second example of a Christian organisation formed under the stewardship model is Interfaith Power & Light (IPL). IPL’s mission is to be “faithful stewards of Creation by responding to global warming” through a number of ecologically friendly initiatives (Interfaith Power & Light, n.d.). The organisation was initially formed in 1998 as a coalition of Episcopal churches formed to buy renewable energy but included other faith partners in 2000. Their focus is on reducing the impacts of global warming by promoting energy conservation and efficiency, the use of renewable energy and the reduction of carbon footprints. Additionally, IPL have formulated specific positions for several policy areas including capping Greenhouse gas emissions, cap and trade, coal, energy efficiency, nuclear power and renewable energy standards.
The stewardship model which was formed from a scriptural re-analysis can be contrasted against the ecojustice model which is founded on the conviction that environmental issues are essentially social justice issues. As Hamlin and Lodge (2006: 8) acknowledge, “How humans relate to the rest of nature is intimately connected to issues of justice and equity among humans.” For example, the allocation and distribution of fossil fuels and food will depend on one’s sense of equity. The ecojustice perspective recognises that environmental degradation is also a social justice issue as it most greatly impacts those who are most impoverished. By repositioning environmental issues as social issues, the ecojustice strategy addresses environmental and social issues simultaneously alongside the churches’ existing pastoral concerns and humanitarian mission commitments (Jenkins, 2008a).
An example of a Christian organisation that operates under the ecojustice strategy is the National Council of Churches in Australia (NCCA). NCCA consists of nineteen churches and is an associate council of the World Council of Churches and a member of the Christian Conference of Asia (NCCA, n.d.a). NCCA focuses on promoting social justice which includes resolving environmental issues. In a statement to the Australian Government, NCCA noted that environmental degradation is inextricably linked to social justice issues such as poverty, diaspora and exploitation (NCCA, n.d.b). Their call to government for action included the request that those most affected by climate would be aided and the unpayable debt of the world’s poorest nations would be reduced.
Another example of an ecumenical ecojustice approach occurred in 1975 at the Nairobi Assembly of the World Council of Churches. Theologians, ethicists and leaders met together subsequently for three decades and determined that social justice and environmental issues could not be addressed separately. An “inclusive vision of eco-justice” was desired and a global ethic was formed as result which addressed ecological sustainability and social justice through four interrelated norms (Hessler, 2009:2). These four norms are solidarity between people and creatures, ecological sustainability, sufficiency and socially just participation. These norms are reflected in the principles of the Earth Charter which is a globally recognised document endorsed by 4,500 organisations outlining ethical principles for developing a “just, sustainable and peaceful” global society for the twenty-first century (The Earth Charter Initiative, n.d.).
The contribution of Christianity and other religions
What is the value of the stewardship model, ecojustice strategy and other Christian responses to the ecological crisis? Stewardship is criticised by Santmire (2000: 1301) as being “too functional, too manipulative, too operational a term, and too tied with money” without proper awe and respect for nature while ecojustice is criticised for being too anthropocentric. Despite the potential flaws and inadequacies of these approaches and of any Christian approach to ecology, Tucker (2008: 127) suggests that the ecological crisis is a “crisis of hope” and religions can provide the “moral direction and inspiration” needed to forge creative and enduring solutions. Religious values will be indispensible as environmental issues are increasingly recognised as also being social issues that cannot be resolved by politics, science or technology alone.
What specific religious values can contribute moral direction and inspiration to the issue of ecology and sustainability? Tucker (2008) suggests that religions contribute a number of important principles and practices. An example is the perspective that earth is humanity’s ‘home’ which is a view grounded in the cosmological contexts and creation stories of each religion. Seeing humanity as part of a larger family of species enables humans to resist anthropocentric views in order to see the earth as intrinsically valuable. Another value that religions contribute is the principle of democracy, nonviolence and peace (Tucker, 2008). This principle will be crucial for guiding the mediation of conflicts that will arise as ecological issues intersect with political and economic concerns. On a more general level, Tucker (2008:119) suggests that religions contribute six significant values – “reverence, respect, restraint, redistribution, responsibility, and renewal”.
From a more emic Christian perspective, Keizer (2001) suggests that the Christian faith is able to ‘redeem’ small and humble efforts. This is helpful in resisting the attitude that there is nothing that ought to be done and the attitude that nothing can be done. An example from my own church of a ‘small and humble’ effort was made by a middle-aged couple who formed a community garden which invited apartment residents like themselves to grow their crops together. This attitude of humility and willingness to contribute may be demonstrated by the diversity of Christian responses to the ecological crisis from laity to clergy and from individuals to organisations. This attitude is aptly expressed by a famous quote of Everett Hale, “I am only one, but I am one. I can’t do everything, but I can do something. The something I ought to do, I can do. And by the grace of God, I will.”
Lastly, Christian faith can contribute the concept that there is something even greater than faith (Keizer, 2001). Love for future generations, for the earth and for those that inhabit is greater than faith as it helps ensure that efforts towards remediation are enduring and have long-term impacts. Keizer (2001) suggests that world’s ecological problems could be remediated in a day but relapse the next day if achieved without love. This is analogous to Israelites who were miraculously led out of Egypt only to wander for forty years in the desert due to their lack of love and obedience. Additionally, Keizer (2001:21) suggests that love helps humans to persist in advocating environmental change in the face of severe conflict and opposition from “environmental enemies”.
Conclusion
The aim of this essay was to provide a broad overview of how Christianity has interacted with the ecological crisis. This was achieved by discussing the Christian stewardship model which is founded on the biblical interpretation that humans should care for creation and the ecojustice strategy which addresses environmental issues as social justice issues. From a broader perspective, the ecological crisis was discussed as a ‘crisis of hope’ in which religions and Christianity specifically can offer their religious values and ethical frameworks to guide and inspire ecological change. This bridge of cooperation that has tentatively emerged between secular and the religious communities is a promising sign for the future. The mutual acknowledgement of the valuable insights and contributions of religious and secular environmental perspectives draws nearer the vision of creating a global ecologically sustainable society.
References
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Faith for thought 